Summary Tables   The following links take you to summary tables for particular topics of interest. Bold topics, from Comprehension to Meta-analyses, have tables farther down this page. Comprehension has the added feature of separate subtopic pages, such as Skills Instruction. Each subtopic link (both in this list and in the 4th column) opens a separate page.

Reviewers' Ratings of Research   As explained in the Reading Summary page, selection of research for this database has emphasized studies meeting the definition of quality research as outlined in the federal No Child Lift Behind legislation. Remember that ratings in column 2 apply to the research design, not to the quality of the intervention studied or how powerful the method, strategy, or approach is in influencing overall student achievement. Design rating levels, as illustrated by the Gold Standard pyramid, are further explained on the Definitions page. The tables below are arranged by column 2, Design Rating, with highest ratings (or N/A) listed first.

Study:
Pinnell, Lyons, DeFord, Bryk, & Seltzer.

Comparing instructional models for the literacy education of high risk first graders

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reading_k-3_148

Reading Topics:
• Comprehension

Grades: 1
Diverse Learners

Keywords:
Reading Recovery; intervention; direct intstruction; writing; Chapter 1

Study:
Morgan, Wilcox, & Eldredge.

Effect of difficulty levels on second-grade delayed readers using dyad reading

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reading_k-3_137

Reading Topics:
• Comprehension
 – Cooperative Strategies

Grades: 2

Keywords:
buddy reading, paired reading, delayed readers

Study:
DeLaPaz & Graham.

Explicitly teaching strategies, skills, and knowledge: Writing instruction in middle school classrooms.

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reading_7-8_103

Strategy:  SRSD- Self-Regulated Strategy Development Model
Subjects: 58 7-8 graders , 2 suburban schools in SE. Schools' demographics: 500 students, 94% White, under 1% ESL, reduced-fee lunch - 18% and 12% at the 2 schools.
Results:

Reading Topics:
• Comprehension
 – Strategy Instruction
 – Misc (writing)

Grades: 6-8
Diverse Learners

Keywords:
writing; explicit teaching

Study:
Dole, Brown, & Trathen.

The effects of strategy instruction on the comprehension performance of at-risk students.

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reading_4-6_5

Grades: 5, 6
Diverse Learners

Keywords:
narrative text; at-risk students: story content

Study:
Lysynchuk, Pressley, & Vye.

Reciprocal teaching improves standardized reading comprehension performance in poor comprehenders.

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reading_4-6_26

Reading Topics:
• Comprehension
 – Strategy Instruction

Grades: 3-5, 6-8
Diverse Learners

Keywords:
reciprocal teaching; questioning: summarizing; predicting

Study:
Gambrell & Bales.

Mental imagery and the comprehension-monitoring performance of fourth-and fifth-grade poor readers.

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reading_4-6_28

Reading Topics:
• Comprehension
 – Strategy Instruction

Grades: 4, 5
Diverse Learners

Keywords:
mental imagery; comprehension-monitoring

Study:
Carnine & Kinder.

Teaching low-performing students to apply generative & schema strategies to narrative and expository materials

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reading_4-6_29

Reading Topics:
• Comprehension
 – Strategy Instruction
 – Activating Background Knowledge

Grades: 4, 5, 6
Diverse Learners

Keywords:
imagery; summarizing; student questions; narrative text; expository text

Study:
Sturm & Rankin-Erickson.

Effects of hand-drawn and computer-generated concept mapping on the expository writing of middle school students with learning disabilities

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reading_7-8_158

Strategy: Concept Mapping, both hand-drawn and computer-generated (Inspirations™ software)
Subjects: 765 middle school English/reading classroom in a medium-sized Midwestern city (89.5% Caucasian, 4.4% African-American, 2.9% Asian American, 1.8% Hispanic, 1.3% Native American; 36% Free and Reduced lunch,)
12 eighth graders with primary disability as learning disability with needs in written expression with IQs between 85 and 120 and two years below grade level
Results: Student essays in all 3 conditions demonstrated significant improvements both qualitatively and quantitatively throughout the study with gains continuing to increase throughout the durations of the study. It’s not clear if the strategy instruction along (without mapping) may have accounted for the improvement or if the concept mapping instruction carried over even when the no mapping conditions was instituted. However, the Writing Attitude Survey revealed significantly more positive results with computer-mapping than the other two conditions.

Reading Topics:
• Comprehension
 – Graphic Organizers

Grades: 8

Also Diverse Learners

Keywords: metacognition, concept mapping, writing, learning disabilities

Study:
Rosenshine & Meister.

Reciprocal teaching: A review of the research.

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reading_4-6_34

Reading Topics:
• Comprehension
 – Strategy Instruction

Grades: Diverse Learners

Keywords:
reciprocal teaching; summarizing; questioning; predicting

Study:
Taylor, Pearson, Peterson, & Rodriguez.

Reading growth in high poverty classrooms: The influence of
teacher practices that encourage cognitive engagement in literacy learning.

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reading_4-6_82

Reading Topics:
• Comprehension
 – Questioning Strategies
 – Discussion

Grades: K-5
Diverse Learners

Keywords:
teacher effectiveness; student engagement

Study:
Fuchs, D., Fuchs, L.S., Thompson, A., Al Otaiba, S., Yen, L., Yang,N.J., Braun, M., & O’Connor, R.E.

Exploring the importance of reading programs for kindergarteners with disabilities in mainstream classrooms .

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reading_k-3_143

Reading Topics:
• Phonemic Awareness

Grades: K
Diverse Learners

Keywords: Pending

Study:
Bulgren, Deshler, Schumaker, Lenz.

The use and effectiveness of analogical instruction in diverse secondary content classrooms.

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reading_9-12_147

Strategy: Analogical Instruction: Concept Anchoring Table and Routine
Subjects: Study 1: 83 high school high achievers, normal achievers and low achievers and Learning Disabled students from 3 Midwest suburban schools districts enrolled in Investigative Science Skills
Study 2; 10 secondary teachers in two school districts in suburban Kansas and one class for each teacher for a total of 193 students.
Study 3: One of 10 teachers of seventh grade general education life science class from Study 2 and 18 students in that class
Results: Use of Concept Anchoring Routine to teach difficult concepts resulted in significantly better student performance on tests.
ES = .99

Reading Topics:
• Comprehension
 – Strategy Instruction

Diverse Learners

Grades: 9-12

Keywords:
content areas; science; social studies; analogies; Concept Routine Anchoring

Study:
Mathes, Howard, Allen, & Fuchs.

Peer-assisted learning strategies for first-grade readers: Responding to the needs of diverse learners

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reading_k-3_145

Grades: 1
Diverse learners

Keywords: PALS

Study:
Leslie & Allen.

Factors that predict success in an early literacy intervention project

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reading_k-3_151

Reading Topics:
• Comprehension
 – Miscellaneous

Grades: 2-3?

Keywords: Pending

Study:
Notari-Syhverson & Vadasy.

First-grade effects of teacher-led phonological activities in kindergarten for children with mild disabilities: A follow-up study

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reading_k-3_154

Reading Topics:
• Phonemic Awareness

Grades: K

Keywords: rhyming, rime, segmentation, phonological activities

Study:
Peters & Levin.

Effects of a mnemonic imagery strategy on good and poor readers' prose recall.

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reading_4-6_25

Reading Topics:
• Comprehension
 – Strategy Instruction

Grades: 6-8
Diverse Learners

Keywords:
imagery; mnemonics; recall

Study:
Schunk & Rice.

Strategy fading and progress feedback: Effects on self-efficacy and comprehension among students receiving remedial reading services.

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reading_4-6_53

Strategy:  Comprehension strategy fading and progress feedback and (use of) strategy value feedback
Subjects: 44 fifth graders receiving remedial reading-comprehension instruction Chapter I reading program predominately lower-middle class, 25% ELL
Results: Self-efficacy yielded significant treatment effect F(3, 40) - 16.82, p<.001
Comprehension skills yielded significant treatment effect F(3, 40)= 14.97, p<.001
Self-reported strategy use was significant F(3, 40) = 16.81, p<.01

Reading Topics:
• Comprehension
 – Strategy Instruction

Grades: 5
Diverse Learners

Keywords: comprehension strategies, direct instruction, explicit instruction

Study:
Holmes.

The effect of states of prior knowledge on question answering.

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reading_4-6_87

Strategy:  No specific strategy/model, program, material, or intervention was used. Study looked at the effects prior knowledge of good and poor readers had on their ability to answer questions.
Subjects: 56 5th graders varying in reading ability (CAT score) and level of prior knowledge (# of accurate facts per 2 selected topics).
Results: The study found that poor readers did not seem to use a large store of background knowledge to the same advantage as the good readers. Poor readers with high background information ere less successful in inferencing, modifying correct information and learning new information.

Grades: 5
Diverse Learners

Keywords:
questioning; expository text

Study:
Graves.

Effects of direct instruction and metacomprehension training on finding main ideas

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reading_4-6_146

Strategy: Direct Instruction and Metacomprehension Training on finding main ideas
Subjects: 24 boys and 8 girls in the fifth through eighth grades, identified as learning disabled, scored at least 2 years below grade level on a standardized reading test, and had IQs within the normal range
Results: The significant results indicated that both metacomprehension(self-monitoring) plus direct instruction, and direct instruction alone are significantly more effective than the control training conditions.

Reading Topics:
• Comprehension
 – Strategy Instruction

Grades: 5-8
Diverse Learners

Keywords:
direct instruction; main idea; metacomprehension

Study:
Fuchs & Fuchs.

Peer-assisted learning strategies: An evidence-based practice to promote reading achievement

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reading_4-6_156

Strategy: Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies (PALS)
Subjects: 118 second through 6 th graders, 58 were students with LD, 27 were low performers never referred to special education and 33 were average achievers.
Results: Students who participated in the four experimental tutoring activities using PALS made significantly greater growth than those in the control group.

Reading Topics:
• Comprehension
 – Cooperative Strategies

Grades: 1-6

Keywords: summarizing, PALS

Study:
Morocco, Hindin, Mata-Aguilar, & Clark-Chiarelli.

Building a deep understanding of literature with middle-grade students with learning disabilities.

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reading_7-8_81

Reading Topics:
• Comprehension
 – Text Structure

Grades: 6-8
Diverse Learners

Keywords:
thematic units; writing; interventions

Study:
Fuchs, L.S., Fuchs, D., & Kazdan, S.

Effects of peer- assisted learning strategies on high school students with serious reading problems.

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reading_9-12_117

Strategy: Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies (PALS)
Subjects: Teachers: 18 special education and remedial reading high school teachers in 10 high schools in one metropolitan southeastern school district.
Students: 70 Resource, 32 Remedial (74 LD, 4 MMR, 2 Other disability, 22 Remedial)
Results:

Reading Topics:
• Comprehension
 – Strategy Instruction
 – Cooperative Strategies

Grades: 9-12

Diverse Learners

Keywords: PALS, comprehension, fluency, diverse learners

Study:
Saenz and Fuchs.

Examining the reading difficulty of secondary students with learning disabilities - Expository versus narrative text.

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reading_9-12_149

Strategy: Expository vs. Narrative Text – Impact on Comprehension
Subjects: 111 high school students from six high schools in 20 remedial and special education reading classrooms located in southeastern US urban school districts. The majority of the students were served in special education settings, were African American, were boys and were in the 9 th grade.
Results: Students had more difficulty with expository text than with narrative test in terms of reading fluency and comprehension.

Reading Topics:
• Comprehension
 – Text Structure

Grades: 9-12
Diverse Learners

Keywords:
narrative; expository; inferences; fluency

Study:
Boyle and Weishaar.

The effect of strategic notetaking on the recall and comprehension of lecture information for high school students with learning disabilities.

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reading_9-12_150

Strategy: Strategic Note Taking
Subjects: 22 tenth through twelfth graders categorized as learning disabled, 4 categorized as educable mentally handicapped (EMR) from a large high school in a rural district bordering a large metropolitan area in the Midwest
Results: Effect Size= +.14

Reading Topics:
• Comprehension
  – Strategy Instruction

Grades: 9-12

Diverse Learners

Keywords: notetaking, learning disabled, comprehension

Study:
Idol, L. & Croll, V.J.

Story-mapping training as a means of improving reading comprehension

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reading_k-3_113

Reading Topics:
• Comprehension
 – Strategy Instruction
 – Text Structure
 – Graphic Organizers

Diverse Learners

Grades: 2 - 5

Keywords: Story-mapping; learning disabled

Study:
Fuchs, Fuchs, Thompson, Al Otaiba, Yen, Yang, Braun, and O’Connor.

Is reading important in reading-readiness programs? A randomized field trial with teachers as program implementers.

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reading_k-3_142

Students receiving Ladders + PALS had a higher outcome score than did Ladders or the controls. Ladders and control groups made gains that were not substantially different.

Grades: K
Diverse Learners

Keywords: PALS, Ladders, phonemic awareness

Linan-Thompson, S., & Hickman-Davis, P.

Supplemental reading instruction for students at risk for reading disabilities: Improve reading 30 minutes at a time.

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reading_k-3_155

Reading Topics:
• Comprehension
• Vocabulary
• Fluency
• Phonemic Awareness

Grade: 2
Diverse Learners

Keywords:

Study:
Rashotte, MacPhee, & Torgesen.

The effectiveness of a group reading instruction program with poor readers in multiple grades

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reading_4-6_14

Results: The results indicate that the Spell Read PAT program did make a significant impact at all grade levels in the students’ phonological and phonetic decoding skills.

Grades: 1-6
Diverse Learners

Keywords: phonology, phonic, phonemic awareness, auditory skills

Strategy: Peer tutoring, reciprocal teaching, effective teaching principles, computer-aided instruction, and two direct instruction models
Subjects: 37 special education resource teachers randomly assigned to one of the six instructional approaches. Average grade level of 153 students with mild disabilities in the instructional conditions was 3.6.
Results: Students’ average achievement gains were greater for only two of the six research models:

Study:
Dalton, Tivnan, Keohane, Rawson, Dias.

Revealing competence: Fourth-grade students with and without learning disabilities show what they know on paper-and-pencil and hands-on performance assessments

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reading_4-6_157

Strategy: Effects of measuring student knowledge through alternate assessments
Subjects: 74 fourth graders in one suburban and 4 urban schools: 29 were students with a learning disability, 51% white, 26% African-American, 7% Latino, 16% other
Results: Students with LD and Low Achievers performed comparably on paper and pencil assessments and performance assessments. The two groups performed well below the Average to High Average group. However, in the performance assessment, the gap narrowed and some of the students with LD scored higher than students in the Average to High Average group.

Reading Topics:
• Comprehension
 – Graphic Organizers

Also Diverse Learners

Grade: 4

Keywords:
assessment, science inquiry, learning disabled

Study:
Hughes, C., Ruhl, K., Schumaker, J., & and Deshler, D.

Effects of Instruction in an Assignment Completion Strategy on the Homework Performance of Students with Learning Disabilities in General Education Classes

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reading_7-8_111

Strategy: Assignment Completion Strategy
Subjects: Nine Caucasian middle-school students with learning disabilities, ages 12-15. Eight male and one female. Four with low SES. Nominated by 2 resource teachers; in resource room 1 -4 periods per day.
Results: Pending

Reading Topics:
• Comprehension
 – Strategy Instruction

Also Diverse Learners

Grades: 7-12

Keywords:
homework; modeling; middle school

Study:
Hallenbeck, M.J.

The cognitive strategy in writing: Welcome relief for adolescents with learning disabilities

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reading_7-8_120

Strategy: Cognitive Strategy in Writing (CSIW) (POWER)
Subjects: Seven white resource room students, grades 7-12; IQ range from 92-106 with a mean of 98.7.
Woodcock Johnson broad written language scores between 5.2 and 6.6 (mean of 5.6) and reading between 6.9 and 9.0 (mean of 8.1)
Results: Pending

Reading Topics:
• Comprehension
 – Strategy Instruction

Also Diverse Learners

Grades: 7-12

Keywords:
writing, modeling, learning disabled

Study:
Bulgren, J.A., Deshler, D.D., and Schumaker.

Use of a recall enhancement routine and strategies in inclusive secondary classes

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reading_7-8_157

Strategy: Recall Enhancement Routine (RER)
Subjects: Study 1: 9 general education teachers from two suburban Kansas school districts with diverse student populations including students with LD.
Study 2: 385 seventh graders across 40 teachers enrolled in the life science classes of the two experimental teachers and the tow comparison teachers. 39 were students with LD.
Results: The mastery criterion was reached or exceeded in 55 of the 64 presentations. During the 39 post-interventions observations, the teachers used 65 important dues; they presented mnemonic devices in 64 of the 65 instances.

Reading Topics:
• Comprehension
 – Strategy Instruction

Grades: 7

Keywords: recall enhancement routine, LD, mnemonics

Study:
Lenz, K., Alley, G.R, & Schumaker, J. B.

Activating the inactive learner: Advance organizers in the secondary content classroom.

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reading_9-12_178

Strategy: Advance organizers
Subjects: Seven regular secondary content teachers with an age rage of 25 to 37, number of years of teaching experience from 3 to 14 years, and from subjects: American History, English, Physical Science, General Science, Geography, and Biology ($50 incentive).
Seven LD adolescents: two female and five male; six white, one black; age range from 16 to 19; four were sophomores, two were juniors, and one was a senior; IQ ranges from 87 to 109 and reading scores from 4.2 to 7.0; all were resource students ($10 incentive).
Results: Pending

Reading Topics:
• Comprehension
 – Strategy Instruction
 – Activating Background Knowledge

Grades: 9-12

Diverse Learners

Keywords: student retention, advance organizers

Study:
Bulgren, J., Schumaker, J., & Deshler, D.

Effectiveness of a concept teaching routine in enhancing the performance of LD students in secondary-level mainstream classes.

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reading_ku_179

Strategy: Concept Diagrams and Concept Teaching Routine
Subjects: 475 9th-12th grade students from two districts: a suburban area of northeast Kansas & an urban area of northwest Missouri.
23 classes taught by the 7 teachers.
32 students with learning disabilities.

Results: Effect Size -
LD students   +1.18
Non LD students   +1.07

Reading Topics:
• Comprehension
 – Strategy Instruction
 – Graphic Organizers

Grades: 9-12
Diverse Learners

Keywords: advanced organizers, concepts

Study:
Tralli, R., Columbo, B., Deshler, D. & Schumaker, J. (a KU study)

The Strategies Intervention Model: A model for supported inclusion at the secondary level.

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reading_ku_175

Strategy: Intervention model for inclusion at the secondary level (SIM)
Subjects: Students in the Wethersfield Public Schools were introduced to the SIM model in 1988. Multiple teachers and schools were involved in the application of the model in special and general education programs. After 7 years the SIM model is embedded in the educational system.
Clayton High School in Clayton, Missouri had six freshmen students diagnosed with learning and language disabilities planning to enter high school in the fall. Clayton High School was in the process of eliminating all basic or low-track courses. Teachers were concerned with how these students would handle regular classes.
Results: Pending

Reading Topics:
• Comprehension
 – Strategy Instruction
 – Misc/Other

Grades: 9-12

Diverse Learners

Keywords: Teaching interventions

Study:
Schmaker, J., Deshler, D., & McKnight, P. (a KU study)

Teaching routines for content areas at the secondary level.

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reading_ku_176

Strategy: Teaching routines for content areas (SIM)
Subjects: N/A
Results: Effect size - not a research study

Reading Topics:
• Comprehension
 – Strategy Instruction
 – Misc/Other

Grades: 9-12

Diverse Learners

Keywords: at-risk students, peer tutoring, visual cueing, advanced organizers

Study:
Bulgren, J. & Lenz, K. (a KU study)

Strategic instruction in the content area.

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reading_ku_180

Strategy: Active Planning is presented in three stages. The acronym SMARTER is used to assist teachers to remember the steps.
Subjects: N/A
Results: N/A

Reading Topics:
• Comprehension
 – Misc/Other

Grades: 9-12

Diverse Learners

Keywords: strategic instruction, planning instruction

Study:
Vollands, Toppings, & Evans.

Computerized self-assessment of reading comprehension with the Accelerated reader.

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reading_4-6_91

Grades: 6
Diverse Learners

Keywords:
Accelerated Reader

Study:
Ivey, G., & Broaddus, K.

Just plain reading: A Survey of what makes student want to read in middle school classrooms

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reading_7-8_108

Strategy: Survey of students to find what factors make them want to read.
Subjects: 1,765 sixth graders from 23 diverse schools (varied cultures, abilities, and economic levels) in the mid-Atlantic and northeastern United States.
Results: The survey clearly indicated that high engagement reading and language arts classrooms would include time to read, time to listen to teachers read, and access to personally interesting materials as main factors that influence why students want to read in middle school classrooms.

Reading Topics:
• Comprehension
 – Misc.

Also Diverse Learners

Grades: 7-12

Keywords:
motivation

Study:
Ligas (The School Board of Broward County, Florida).

Evaluation of Broward County Alliance of Quality Schools Project.

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reading_4-6_89

Grades: 3-8
Diverse Learners

Keywords:
direct instruction; Accelerated Reader; computer assisted instruction

Study:
Elbaum,B., Vaughn, S., Hughes, M.T., & Moody, W.W.  

How effective are one-to-one tutoring programs in reading for elementary students at risk for reading failure? A meta-analysis of the intervention research

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reading_k-3_153

Reading Topics:
• Comprehension
  – Strategy Instruction
• Phonemic Awareness

Grades: 1 - 6
Diverse Learners

Keywords: phonemic awareness, instructional strategy, LD

Study:
Kuhn & Stahl.

Teaching children to learn word meanings from context: A synthesis and some questions.

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reading_meta_19

Meta-
analysis

Reading Topics:
• Vocabulary

Keywords:
context; word meaning

Study:
Kucan & Beck.

Thinking Aloud & Reading Comprehension Research: Inquiry, Instruction, & Social Interaction.

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reading_meta_35

Meta-
analysis

Reading Topics:
• Comprehension
 – Think Aloud
 – Strategy Instruction
 – Literature Review

Grades: 3-5, 6-8

Keywords:
inquiry; modeling

Study:
Gersten, R. and Baker S.

Teaching expressive writing to students with learning disabilities: A meta-analysis.

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reading_meta_159

Strategy:   Steps of the writing process, the critical dimensions of different writing genres, structures for giving students on the quality of their writing
Subjects: Students in the study met criteria for a learning disability and were eligible for special education services; 5) 66% or more of the sample were students with learning disabilities; 6) a comparison group of students with learning disabilities was included.
Results:

Reading Topics:
• Comprehension
 – Misc.

Grades: All grades

Diverse Learners

Keywords:
writing, explicit instruction, writing genres, feedback

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